At the end of the 12th century, the German armed, religious expansion to the
east increased. Warfare commenced at the beginning of the 13th century, when the
pagan society fought against the more advanced European society. German, Danish,
Swedish, and Russian conquerors encountered armed resistance. By the year 1227,
Estonia had been conquered, and this meant that Estonia's development became
tied to that of Europe. The Estonian native inhabitants made numerous attempts
to restore their independence - the largest, yet unsuccessful, attempt was the
St. George's Night Uprising (1343-45).
After the
conquest, small feudal states were formed. Estonia was divided between the
Livonian Order (until 1237 the Order of the Knights of the Sword), Denmark (who
sold its territory to the Livonian Order in 1346), and the bishops of Tartu and
Saare-Lääne. Landlords parcelled out land to their vassals. Churches and stone
fortresses were built, manorial estates and nine towns were erected (of these, 4
towns belonged to the Hanseatic League). The economy of the towns was based on
East-West transit trade. The peasants were obliged to pay the ever increasing
taxes, their legal status deteriorated: by the end of the 14th century peasants
were attached to the soil and by the beginning of the 16th century, serfdom had
developed. There was no mass immigration of German peasants, the feudal rulers
did not make attempts to re-populate the country. The influence of German
culture, however, was strong (i.e. handicrafts, building technics, everyday life,
language, etc.). In 1421, the Maapäev diet started to convene.
Continuous military conflicts with Lithuania, Novgorod and Pihkva (especially
the conflict with Pihkva in 1480) developed into an encounter with the Princes
of Moscow. The Teutonic Order won the Smolina battle in 1503, and, as a result,
a 50-war armistice agreement was signed. The Reformation came to Estonia from
Germany in 1523, increasing internal disagreements because the towns converted
quickly to Lutheranism - whereas in the countryside, Roman Catholicism remained
for a longer period. The first known Estonian-language publication is from the
war 1525.
In 1558, Prince Ivan IV of Moscow invaded
Estonia and defeated the divided small states. The rulers searched for foreign
aid: in 1559, the Saare-Lääne Bishop sold his territory to Denmark. In 1561,
northern Estonia yielded to Sweden and southern Estonia to Poland, who tried to
re-establish the positions of Roman Catholicism. By the war 1583, the Russian
armies were forced out of Estonia. As a result of the Swedish-Polish wars, all
of continental Estonia became Swedish territory in 1625. By the end of the wars,
Estonia was devastated; the pre-war population of 250,000-280,000 had dropped to
100,000. In 1645, the Island of Saaremaa also went under Swedish control.
In the interest of the Swedish rulers, the power of the aristocracy was somewhat
curbed, the administration of justice was nationalised, and the taxation of the
peasants was regulated. The freedom of movement of the peasants, which had
increased during the wars, was again restricted. The peasants, however, began to
understand that it was possible to be protected by the state. A basis was formed
for Estonian-language schools, two gymnasiums were established, Tartu University
opened its doors in 1632. The first manufactures were founded. In 1680, manorial
estates were returned to the State (reduction) in the interests of the State
treasury. This increased the discontent of the local Baltic-German aristocracy.
The population grew to 350,000-400,000. Between 1695 and 1697, the Great Famine
devastated the country.
King Charles XII (Karl XII) defeated Russia in a battle at Narva in 1700. Estonia was effectively conquered by Russia in 1710. By
surrendering, the Baltic-German aristocracy managed to preserve its power in the
local governments and its privileges; due to the war, famine and plague, the
population dropped to 150,000. In 1721, with the Nystad Peace Treaty, Estonia
became part of Russia. In 1739, the first Estonian Bible was
published. The reduction of manors was abated, the power of the local
aristocracy again strengthened over the land and the rural population. Baltic-Germans
were wry influential in Russian administrative and armed bodies. Corvee spread,
and state taxes increased. In the 1740s, classical serfdom was firmly in place,
and peasants were treated as property of the manor. Spirits were distilled of
grain and sold to Russia. By the end of the 18th century, serfdom's economic
value was expended, and the government and some circles of the aristocracy, who
were influenced by the ideas of enlightenment, attempted reforms which would
limit corvee (up to 6 days per farm, and, according to the needs, some
additional compulsory labour to the lord of the manor). At the beginning of the
19th century, peasants were granted the ownership of their movable property as
well as the right to exploit their farms in perpetuity. Village courts were
established to regulate peasants activities, and this enabled some peasants to
become prominent. Partial reforms, however, did not resolve the social and
economical deadlock. The reforms of 1816 and 1819 (i.e. 45 years earlier than in
Russia) gradually freed the peasants from serfdom. Counties, i.e. the peasants
territorial local government units, were established on the farm lands of the
manors. Estonian county schools were established across the country and the
education level of the peasants rose quickly. Tartu University, which was
reopened in 1802, became an important scientific and cultural centre of all
Russia. The Baltic-German aristocracy, influenced by the ideas of the
enlightenment, became interested in Estonian language and national culture. The
peasants were freed, but were unable to get land; rental agreements had the same,
or even worse conditions. Rent was paid with statute labour. In the period
1820-40, the peasants expressed their dissatisfaction through activity in
religious movements, in disturbances, emigration. The laws of 1849 and 1856
ensured a certain amount of land for the peasants, and rents began to be paid
with money. In 1866, manors lost control over the peasants governmental bodies.
The industrial revolution began slowly with the textile industry in 1830-40. The
fist railway between Tallinn and St. Petersburg was opened in 1870.
More peasants bought farms and became independent fn)m the manors.
Estonian-language journalism began (Johann Voldemar Jannsen's
weekly, 1857), Estonian intelligentsia developed.
In 1857, the national epic Kalevipoeg
(compiled by Fr. R. Kreutzwald) was published. At the beginning of the national
movement, petitions were presented to the Russian central authorities; the era
of awakening was affected through major national events: a collection for the
establishment of an Estonian-language secondary school for peasants (Estonian
Alexander School), song festivals (from 1869), folklore collection. Agricultural
and cultural societies and a national theatre were founded; research was begun
into Estonian topics. The politically active period enabled Estonians to become
organised, individualism and self-consciousness increased. Estonians became
aware that they constituted a nationality and formulated their demands. A
moderate group of the national movement (Jakob Hurt) emphasised the development
of the spirit and culture. The more radical group (Carl Robert Jakobson)
stressed economic progress, the increase of the role of the peasants in society,
and the removal of the privileges of the aristocracy and clergy. This group
counted on support from the central Russian powers. In 1878, Jakobson started to
publish the first Estonian political newspaper (Sakala). Different
attitudes towards the church caused the so-called Great Split. In 1884, the
Estonian University Students Society's blue-black-and-white flag was consecrated.
Later this became the
Estonian national flag .
Russian nationalism strengthened in order to tie the
peripheral provinces to the centre. Alexander III who came to the throne of
Russia in 1881, refused the Baltic-German aristocracy its class privileges.
Although the Baltic-Germans special status was restricted through reforms by the
central powers, the intense Russification policies also suppressed the
activities of the era of awakening. Russian became the language m government
institutions and schools, local authorities became increasingly under the
control of the Russian centre, the importance of the Russian officialdom
increased. Organisations in the national movement were closed down, censorship
became stricter, conversion to the Russian Orthodox Church was encouraged in a
further attempt to Russify the indigenous population. The society was
characterised by resignation, internal conflicts, lack of activity and going
with the Russification to some extent.
When the Russification policies
expired in 1897; 986,000 people lived in Estonia - 90.6% were Estonians, with a
77.7% literacy rate (96.2% were able to read). Development began in the metal
and machinery industries, cotton and wood processing industries were established.
Tallinn became an important industrial centre besides Narva. Estonia was one of
the most industrialised areas in the Russian Empire, but the industries operated
in the interests of Russia-with Russian raw materials and work-force, and the
main markets being in Russia. In agriculture, there was a change of emphasis
from grain growing to the dairy industry, peasants became stratified.
Agricultural co- operatives flourished, farmers associations were formed. The
towns became more Estonian. A new generation of educated people, including
politicians, quickly restored the awareness of national identity. Under the
cover of Villem Reiman's temperance movement, wider national culture aims were
proposed. Tartu became the centre of the national renaissance. Jaan Tõnisson the
editor of the Tartu newspaper Postimees (The Postman), fought
against the effects of Russification, emphasised national virtues and the
necessity of working together in an organised fashion, and actively took part in
community activities. Konstantin Päts, the editor of the Tallinn newspaper
Teataja (The Herald), emphasised economic demands. The bearers of the
professional culture from the group Noor Eesti -Young Estonia, such as Gustav
Suits, Friedebert Tuglas, Johannes Aavik aimed at becoming Europeans and saw
Estonian culture not only in the traditional German and Russian environment, but
also in the European context. In 1909, the Estonian National Museum was founded.
In 1905, the stormy events of the Russian revolution caused an increase in
social activism and encouraged the development of democracy in society. Parties
were formed. In October, the all-Russian general strike spread in Estonia, on
October 16, the army killed 94 of the strikers. An all-Estonia representative
body was elected- which split during the congress into the moderates (who were
content with those concessions already made) and the radicals (who wanted to
continue the revolution). During the counter-attack by the central powers the
battle moved to the rural areas, and 120 manors were burned down. In the course
of the suppressions, approximately 300 people were executed by the authorities,
some of the political leaders escaped abroad. Despite the defeat, the
development of a civic society continued: legal opposition was allowed, trade
unions were formed, societies and co-operatives flourished, Estonians became
involved in town councils. Estonian - language education developed. The pre-war
militarization favoured the development of industry, several shipyards were
established. At the beginning of the WW I, the central powers restricted the
influence of the Baltic-Germans. The war produced a cadre of Estonian soldiers
and officers. As the war dragged on, there arose demands for autonomy among the
liberal nationalists (Jüri Vilms, 1916). After the collapse of tsarist power in
1917, the struggle between national forces and the Bolsheviks continued. On
March 30, the Russian Provisional Government approved autonomy for Estonia, and
the Land Council was elected as the people s representative. New parties were
formed. Bolsheviks, who relied on big enterprises and the bolshevism-minded
Russian troops, became more influential. Estonian servicemen formed national
army units. The power of the Bolsheviks increased together with the growing
chaos and consequently they seized power in a bloodless coup in October. In
Estonia Bolshevik power was represented by the Estonian Soviet Executive
Committee (Jaan Anvelt). Banks and manors were nationalised. The Soviets were
unable to consolidate their control, and on November 15, the Land Council
declared itself to be the supreme power in Estonia. In doing so, it declared for
the fist time the right of the Estonian people to self- determination. The Land
Council was disbanded by the Soviets, but continued its activities underground.
At the same time, the Baltic-Germans tried to unite Estonia with Germany.
The conviction to secede from Russia deepened in various
spheres of the community. In January 1918, the Bolsheviks cancelled the
elections to the Estonian Constituent Assembly and established dictatorship. In
February 1918, the peace talks between Soviet Russia and Germany broke down. The
Russian forces and the Bolsheviks fled back to Russia in face of the advancing
German army. Representatives of the larger parties in the Land Council formed
the Estonian Salvation Committee, and on February 24, 1918, the Estonian
Independence Manifesto declared the Republic of Estonia - and it became the
first of the small national republics in Europe to be formed by oppressed
peoples. A provisional government was nominated (Chair. K. Päts), and neutrality
was declared in the Russian-German war. The Germans refused to recognise the new
state and occupied Estonia. Supreme power was assumed by the German military
government; the power of the aristocracy was restored and the manors were
returned to the aristocracy. The economy was subjugated to the interests of
Germany. The Germans attempted to establish the Baltic Duchy, but due to
resistance and general military decline, this plan was never carried out.
Because of the activities of Estonian delegation abroad, Great Britain, France
and Italy acknowledged independent Estonia de facto in May 1918.
After the collapse of Germany in November 1918, the Estonian
provisional government assumed power. Soviet Russia attacked Estonia-and in an
attempt to conceal the aggression, the Estonian Working People's Commune was set
up in Narva. By the beginning of 1919, 2/3 of Estonia were under Soviet control.
The Estonians counter-attacked and freed the land in three weeks. The Estonian
defence force was led by Gen. Johan Laidoner. Assistance was provided by a
British fleet, and volunteers from Finland and Scandinavia (4,000 men). The
break- through came when Estonia mobilised all its resources. In the spring of
1919, there were 86,000 men in the Estonian army. In April 1919, the freely
elected Constituent Assembly convened and passed a declaration of independence,
a land reform bill and a constitution. In June and July of 1919, successful
battles were conducted against the Baltic-German Landeswehr army in northern
Latvia (the victory at Võnnu on June 23 is commemorated by a national holiday,
the Victory Day). Military activity against Soviet Russia continued in autumn,
and on February 2, 1920, the Tartu Peace Treaty was concluded, wherein Soviet
Russia recognised the Republic of Estonia. The national self-determination of
the Estonian people occurred whilst the War of Independence was being fought.
