The Roman invasion of Britain in 55 BC and its subsequent incorporation into
the Roman Empire stimulated development and brought more active contacts with
the rest of Europe. As Rome's strength declined, the country again was exposed
to invasion-including the pivotal incursions of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes in
the fifth and sixth centuries AD -- up to the Norman conquest in 1066. Norman
rule effectively ensured Britain's safety from further intrusions and so that
certain institutions, which remain characteristic of Britain, could develop.
Among these institutions are a political, administrative, cultural, and economic
center in London; a separate but established church; a system of common law;
distinctive and distinguished university education; and representative
government.
Union
Both Wales and Scotland were independent kingdoms that fiercely resisted
English rule. The English conquest of Wales succeeded in 1282 under Edward I,
and the Statute of Rhuddlan established English rule 2 years later. To appease
the Welsh, Edward's son (later Edward II), who had been born in Wales, was made
Prince of Wales in 1301. The tradition of bestowing this title on the eldest son
of the British monarch continues today. An act of 1536 completed the political
and administrative union of England and Wales.
While maintaining separate parliaments, England and Scotland were ruled under
one crown begining in 1603, when James VI of Scotland succeeded his cousin
Elizabeth I as James I of England. In the ensuing 100 years, strong religious
and political differences divided the kingdoms. Finally, in 1707, England and
Scotland were unified as Great Britain, sharing a single Parliament and flag (the
"Union Jack").
Ireland's invasion by the Anglo-Normans in 1170 led to centuries of strife.
Successive English kings sought to conquer Ireland. In the early 17th century,
large-scale settlement of the north from Scotland and England began. After its
defeat, Ireland was subjected, with varying degrees of success, to control and
regulation by Britain.
The legislative union of Great Britain and Ireland was completed on January
1, 1801, under the name of the United Kingdom. However, armed struggle for
independence continued sporadically into the 20th century. The Anglo-Irish
Treaty of 1921 established the Irish Free State, which subsequently left the
Commonwealth and became a republic after World War II. Six northern,
predominantly Protestant counties have remained part of the United Kingdom.
British Expansion and Empire
Begun initially to support William the Conqueror's (c. 1029-1087) holdings in
France, Britain's policy of active involvement in European affairs endured for
several hundred years. By the end of the 14th century, foreign trade, originally
based on wool exports to Europe, had emerged as a cornerstone of national policy.
The foundations of sea power were gradually laid to protect English trade and
open up new routes. Defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 firmly established
England as a major sea power. Thereafter, its interests outside Europe grew
steadily. Attracted by the spice trade, English mercantile interests spread
first to the Far East. In search of an alternate route to the Spice Islands,
John Cabot reached the North American continent in 1498. Sir Walter Raleigh
organized the first, short-lived colony in Virginia in 1584, and permanent
English settlement began in 1607 at Jamestown, Virginia. During the next 2
centuries, Britain extended its influence abroad and consolidated its political
development at home.
Great Britain's industrial revolution greatly strengthened its ability to oppose
Napoleonic France. By the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, the United Kingdom
was the foremost European power, and its navy ruled the seas. Peace in Europe
allowed the British to focus their interests on more remote parts of the world,
and during this period the British Empire reached its zenith. British colonial
expansion reached its height largely during the reign of Queen Victoria
(1837-1901). Queen Victoria's reign witnessed the spread of British technology,
commerce, language, and government throughout the British Empire, which at its
greatest extent encompassed roughly one-quarter to one-fifth of the world's area
and population. British colonies contributed to the United Kingdom's
extraordinary economic growth and strengthened its voice in world affairs. Even
as the United Kingdom became more imperial abroad, it continued to develop and
broaden its democratic institutions at home.
20th Century
By the time of Queen Victoria's death in 1901, other nations, including the
United States and Germany, had developed their own industries; the United
Kingdom's comparative economic advantage had lessened, and the ambitions of its
rivals had grown. The losses and destruction of World War I, the depression of
the 1930s, and decades of relatively slow growth made it difficult for the
United Kingdom to maintain its preeminent international position of the previous
century.
Britain's control over its empire loosened during the interwar period.
Ireland, with the exception of six northern counties, broke away from the United
Kingdom in 1921. Nationalism became stronger in other parts of the empire,
particularly in India and Egypt.
In 1926, the U.K., completing a process begun a century earlier, granted
Australia, Canada, and New Zealand complete autonomy within the empire. They
became charter members of the British Commonwealth of Nations (now known as the
Commonwealth), an informal but closely knit association that succeeded the
empire. Beginning with the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, the
remainder of the British Empire was almost completely dismantled. Today, most of
Britain's former colonies belong to the Commonwealth, almost all of them as
independent members. There are, however, 13 former British colonies -- including
Bermuda, Gibraltar, and the Falkland Islands -- which have elected to continue
their political links with London and are known as United Kingdom Overseas
Territories.
Although weakened by economic and political nationalism, the Commonwealth
offers the United Kingdom a voice in matters concerning many developing
countries. In addition, the Commonwealth helps preserve many institutions
deriving from British experience and models, such as parliamentary democracy, in
those countries.
UP
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